Unijunction transistor

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Unijunction transistors

Circuit symbol

A unijunction transistor (UJT) is an electronic semiconductor device that has only one junction. The UJT has three terminals: an emitter (E) and two bases (B1 and B2). The base is formed by lightly doped n-type bar of silicon. Two ohmic contacts B1 and B2 are attached at its ends. The emitter is of p-type and it is heavily doped. The resistance between B1 and B2, when the emitter is open-circuit is called interbase resistance.
There are two types of unijunction transistor:

• The original unijunction transistor, or UJT, is a simple device that is essentially a bar of N type semiconductor material into which P type material has been diffused somewhere along its length, defining the device parameter η. The 2N2646 is the most commonly used version of the UJT.

• The programmable unijunction transistor, or PUT, is a close cousin to the thyristor. Like the thyristor it consists of four P-N layers and has an anode and a cathode connected to the first and the last layer, and a gate connected to one of the inner layers. They are not directly interchangeable with conventional UJTs but perform a similar function. In a proper circuit configuration with two "programming" resistors for setting the parameter η, they behave like a conventional UJT. The 2N6027 is an example of such a device.

The UJT is biased with a positive voltage between the two bases. This causes a potential drop along the length of the device. When the emitter voltage is driven approximately one diode voltage above the voltage at the point where the P diffusion (emitter) is, current will begin to flow from the emitter into the base region. Because the base region is very lightly doped, the additional current (actually charges in the base region) causes conductivity modulation which reduces the resistance of the portion of the base between the emitter junction and the B2 terminal. This reduction in resistance means that the emitter junction is more forward biased, and so even more current is injected. Overall, the effect is a negative resistance at the emitter terminal. This is what makes the UJT useful, especially in simple oscillator circuits.
Unijunction transistor circuits were popular in hobbyist electronics circuits in the 1970s and early 1980s because they allowed simple oscillators to be built using just one active device. Later, as Integrated Circuits became more popular, oscillators such as the 555 timer IC became more commonly used.
In addition to its use as the active device in relaxation oscillators, one of the most important applications of UJTs or PUTs is to trigger thyristors (SCR, TRIAC, etc.). In fact, a DC voltage can be used to control a UJT or PUT circuit such that the "on-period" increases with an increase in the DC control voltage. This application is important for large AC current control.

[edit] See also

• Phase-shift oscillator

Field-effect transistor

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"FET" redirects here. For other uses, see FET (disambiguation).

High-power N-channel field-effect transistor

The field-effect transistor (FET) relies on an electric field to control the shape and hence the conductivity of a channel of one type of charge carrier in a semiconductor material. FETs are sometimes called unipolar transistors to contrast their single-carrier-type operation with the dual-carrier-type operation of bipolar (junction) transistors (BJT). The concept of the FET predates the BJT, though it was not physically implemented until after BJTs due to the limitations of semiconductor materials and the relative ease of manufacturing BJTs compared to FETs at the time.

Contents [hide] 1 History 2 Terminals 3 Composition 4 Types of field-effect transistors 5 FET operation 6 Uses 7 References 8 See also 9 External links

[edit] History

Main article: History of the transistor

Field-effect transistors were invented by Julius Edgar Lilienfeld in 1925 and by Oskar Heil in 1934, but practical devices were not able to be made until 1952 (the JFET). The MOSFET, which largely superseded the JFET and had a more profound effect on electronic development, was first proposed by Dawon Kahng in 1960. ^[1]

[edit] Terminals

Cross section of an n-type MOSFET

All FETs have a gate, drain, and source terminal that correspond roughly to the base, collector, and emitter of BJTs. Aside from the JFET, all FETs also have a fourth terminal called the body, base, bulk, or substrate. This fourth terminal serves to bias the transistor into operation; it is rare to make non-trivial use of the body terminal in circuit designs, but its presence is important when setting up the physical layout of an integrated circuit. The size of the gate, length L in the diagram, is the distance between source and drain. The width is the extension of the transistor, in the diagram perpendicular to the cross section. Typically the width is much larger than the length of the gate. A gate length of 1µm limits the upper frequency to about 5 GHz, 0.2µm to about 30 GHz.
The names of the terminals refer to their functions. The gate terminal may be thought of as controlling the opening and closing of a physical gate. This gate permits electrons to flow through or blocks their passage by creating or eliminating a channel between the source and drain. Electrons flow from the source terminal towards the drain terminal if influenced by an applied voltage. The body simply refers to the bulk of the semiconductor in which the gate, source and drain lie. Usually the body terminal is connected to the highest or lowest voltage within the circuit, depending on type. The body terminal and the source terminal are sometimes connected together since the source is also sometimes connected to the highest or lowest voltage within the circuit, however there are several uses of FETs which do not have such a configuration, such as transmission gates and cascode circuits.

[edit] Composition

The FET can be constructed from a number of semiconductors, silicon being by far the most common. Most FETs are made with conventional bulk semiconductor processing techniques, using the single crystal semiconductor wafer as the active region, or channel.
Among the more unusual body materials are amorphous silicon, polycrystalline silicon or other amorphous semiconductors in thin-film transistors or organic field effect transistors that are based on organic semiconductors and often apply organic gate insulators and electrodes.

[edit] Types of field-effect transistors

Depletion-type FETs under typical voltages. JFET, poly-silicon MOSFET, double-gate MOSFET, metal-gate MOSFET, MESFET.  depletion ,  electrons ,  holes ,  metal ,  insulator . Top=source, bottom=drain, left=gate, right=bulk. Voltages that lead to channel formation are not shown

The channel of a FET (explained below) is doped to produce either an N-type semiconductor or a P-type semiconductor. The drain and source may be doped of opposite type to the channel, in the case of depletion mode FETs, or doped of similar type to the channel as in enhancement mode FETs. Field-effect transistors are also distinguished by the method of insulation between channel and gate. Types of FETs are:

• The DEPFET is a FET formed in a fully-depleted substrate and acts as a sensor, amplifier and memory node at the same time. It can be used as an image (photon) sensor.
• The DGMOSFET is a MOSFET with dual gates.
• The DNAFET is a specialized FET that acts as a biosensor, by using a gate made of single-strand DNA molecules to detect matching DNA strands.
• The FREDFET (Fast Reverse or Fast Recovery Epitaxial Diode FET) is a specialized FET designed to provide a very fast recovery (turn-off) of the body diode.
• The HEMT (High Electron Mobility Transistor), also called an HFET (heterostructure FET), can be made using bandgap engineering in a ternary semiconductor such as AlGaAs. The fully depleted wide-band-gap material forms the isolation between gate and body.
• The IGBT (Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistor) is a device for power control. It has a structure akin to a MOSFET coupled with a bipolar-like main conduction channel. These are commonly used for the 200-3000 V drain-to-source voltage range of operation. Power MOSFETs are still the device of choice for drain-to-source voltages of 1 to 200 V.
• The ISFET is an Ion-Sensitive Field Effect Transistor used to measure ion concentrations in a solution; when the ion concentration (such as pH) changes, the current through the transistor will change accordingly.
• The JFET (Junction Field-Effect Transistor) uses a reverse biased p-n junction to separate the gate from the body.
• The MESFET (Metal–Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor) substitutes the p-n junction of the JFET with a Schottky barrier; used in GaAs and other III-V semiconductor materials.
• The MODFET (Modulation-Doped Field Effect Transistor) uses a quantum well structure formed by graded doping of the active region.
• The MOSFET (Metal–Oxide–Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor) utilizes an insulator (typically SiO₂) between the gate and the body.
• The NOMFET is a Nanoparticle Organic Memory Field-Effect Transistor.[1]
• The OFET is an Organic Field-Effect Transistor using an organic semiconductor in its

[edit] FET operation

I–V characteristics and output plot of a JFET n-channel transistor.

The FET controls the flow of electrons (or electron holes) from the source to drain by affecting the size and shape of a "conductive channel" created and influenced by voltage (or lack of voltage) applied across the gate and source terminals (For ease of discussion, this assumes body and source are connected). This conductive channel is the "stream" through which electrons flow from source to drain.
In an n-channel depletion-mode device, a negative gate-to-source voltage causes a depletion region to expand in width and encroach on the channel from the sides, narrowing the channel. If the depletion region expands to completely close the channel, the resistance of the channel from source to drain becomes large, and the FET is effectively turned off like a switch. Likewise a positive gate-to-source voltage increases the channel size and allows electrons to flow easily.
Conversely, in an n-channel enhancement-mode device, a positive gate-to-source voltage is necessary to create a conductive channel, since one does not exist naturally within the transistor. The positive voltage attracts free-floating electrons within the body towards the gate, forming a conductive channel. But first, enough electrons must be attracted near the gate to counter the dopant ions added to the body of the FET; this forms a region free of mobile carriers called a depletion region, and the phenomenon is referred to as the threshold voltage of the FET. Further gate-to-source voltage increase will attract even more electrons towards the gate which are able to create a conductive channel from source to drain; this process is called inversion.
For either enhancement- or depletion-mode devices, at drain-to-source voltages much less than gate-to-source voltages, changing the gate voltage will alter the channel resistance, and drain current will be proportional to drain voltage (referenced to source voltage). In this mode the FET operates like a variable resistor and the FET is said to be operating in a linear mode or ohmic mode.^[2][3]
If drain-to-source voltage is increased, this creates a significant asymmetrical change in the shape of the channel due to a gradient of voltage potential from source to drain. The shape of the inversion region becomes "pinched-off" near the drain end of the channel. If drain-to-source voltage is increased further, the pinch-off point of the channel begins to move away from the drain towards the source. The FET is said to be in saturation mode;^[4] some authors refer to it as active mode, for a better analogy with bipolar transistor operating regions.^[5][6] The saturation mode, or the region between ohmic and saturation, is used when amplification is needed. The in-between region is sometimes considered to be part of the ohmic or linear region, even where drain current is not approximately linear with drain voltage.
Even though the conductive channel formed by gate-to-source voltage no longer connects source to drain during saturation mode, carriers are not blocked from flowing. Considering again an n-channel device, a depletion region exists in the p-type body, surrounding the conductive channel and drain and source regions. The electrons which comprise the channel are free to move out of the channel through the depletion region if attracted to the drain by drain-to-source voltage. The depletion region is free of carriers and has a resistance similar to silicon. Any increase of the drain-to-source voltage will increase the distance from drain to the pinch-off point, increasing resistance due to the depletion region proportionally to the applied drain-to-source voltage. This proportional change causes the drain-to-source current to remain relatively fixed independent of changes to the drain-to-source voltage and quite unlike the linear mode operation. Thus in saturation mode, the FET behaves as a constant-current source rather than as a resistor and can be used most effectively as a voltage amplifier. In this case, the gate-to-source voltage determines the level of constant current through the channel.

[edit] Uses

IGBTs see application in switching internal combustion engine ignition coils, where fast switching and voltage blocking capabilities are important.
The most commonly used FET is the MOSFET. The CMOS (complementary-symmetry metal oxide semiconductor) process technology is the basis for modern digital integrated circuits. This process technology uses an arrangement where the (usually "enhancement-mode") p-channel MOSFET and n-channel MOSFET are connected in series such that when one is on, the other is off.
The fragile insulating layer of the MOSFET between the gate and channel makes it vulnerable to electrostatic damage during handling. This is not usually a problem after the device has been installed in a properly designed circuit.
In FETs electrons can flow in either direction through the channel when operated in the linear mode, and the naming convention of drain terminal and source terminal is somewhat arbitrary, as the devices are typically (but not always) built symmetrically from source to drain. This makes FETs suitable for switching analog signals between paths (multiplexing). With this concept, one can construct a solid-state mixing board, for example

Bipolar junction transistor

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A bipolar (junction) transistor (BJT) is a three-terminal electronic device constructed of doped semiconductor material and may be used in amplifying or switching applications. Bipolar transistors are so named because their operation involves both electrons and holes. Charge flow in a BJT is due to bidirectional diffusion of charge carriers across a junction between two regions of different charge concentrations. This mode of operation is contrasted with unipolar transistors, such as field-effect transistors, in which only one carrier type is involved in charge flow due to drift. By design, most of the BJT collector current is due to the flow of charges injected from a high-concentration emitter into the base where they are minority carriers that diffuse toward the collector, and so BJTs are classified as minority-carrier devices.

	PNP
	NPN

Schematic symbols for
PNP- and NPN-type
BJTs.

Contents [hide] 1 Introduction 1.1 Voltage, current, and charge control 1.2 Turn-on, turn-off, and storage delay 1.3 Transistor 'alpha' and 'beta' 2 Structure 2.1 NPN 2.2 PNP 2.3 Heterojunction bipolar transistor 3 Regions of operation 3.1 Active-mode NPN transistors in circuits 3.2 Active-mode PNP transistors in circuits 4 History 4.1 Germanium transistors 4.2 Early manufacturing techniques 5 Theory and modeling 5.1 Large-signal models 5.1.1 Ebers–Moll model 5.1.1.1 Base-width modulation 5.1.1.2 Current–voltage characteristics 5.1.1.3 Punchthrough 5.1.2 Gummel–Poon charge-control model 5.2 Small-signal models 5.2.1 hybrid-pi model 5.2.2 h-parameter model 6 Applications 6.1 Temperature sensors 6.2 Logarithmic converters 7 Vulnerabilities 8 See also 9 References 10 External links

[edit] Introduction

NPN BJT with forward-biased E–B junction and reverse-biased B–C junction

An NPN transistor can be considered as two diodes with a shared anode. In typical operation, the base-emitter junction is forward biased and the base–collector junction is reverse biased. In an NPN transistor, for example, when a positive voltage is applied to the base–emitter junction, the equilibrium between thermally generated carriers and the repelling electric field of the depletion region becomes unbalanced, allowing thermally excited electrons to inject into the base region. These electrons wander (or "diffuse") through the base from the region of high concentration near the emitter towards the region of low concentration near the collector. The electrons in the base are called minority carriers because the base is doped p-type which would make holes the majority carrier in the base.
To minimize the percentage of carriers that recombine before reaching the collector–base junction, the transistor's base region must be thin enough that carriers can diffuse across it in much less time than the semiconductor's minority carrier lifetime. In particular, the thickness of the base must be much less than the diffusion length of the electrons. The collector–base junction is reverse-biased, and so little electron injection occurs from the collector to the base, but electrons that diffuse through the base towards the collector are swept into the collector by the electric field in the depletion region of the collector–base junction. The thin shared base and asymmetric collector–emitter doping is what differentiates a bipolar transistor from two separate and oppositely biased diodes connected in series.

[edit] Voltage, current, and charge control

The collector–emitter current can be viewed as being controlled by the base–emitter current (current control), or by the base–emitter voltage (voltage control). These views are related by the current–voltage relation of the base–emitter junction, which is just the usual exponential current–voltage curve of a p-n junction (diode).^[1]
The physical explanation for collector current is the amount of minority-carrier charge in the base region.^[1][2][3] Detailed models of transistor action, such as the Gummel–Poon model, account for the distribution of this charge explicitly to explain transistor behavior more exactly.^[4] The charge-control view easily handles phototransistors, where minority carriers in the base region are created by the absorption of photons, and handles the dynamics of turn-off, or recovery time, which depends on charge in the base region recombining. However, because base charge is not a signal that is visible at the terminals, the current- and voltage-control views are generally used in circuit design and analysis.
In analog circuit design, the current-control view is sometimes used because it is approximately linear. That is, the collector current is approximately β_F times the base current. Some basic circuits can be designed by assuming that the emitter–base voltage is approximately constant, and that collector current is beta times the base current. However, to accurately and reliably design production BJT circuits, the voltage-control (for example, Ebers–Moll) model is required^[1]. The voltage-control model requires an exponential function to be taken into account, but when it is linearized such that the transistor can be modelled as a transconductance, as in the Ebers–Moll model, design for circuits such as differential amplifiers again becomes a mostly linear problem, so the voltage-control view is often preferred. For translinear circuits, in which the exponential I–V curve is key to the operation, the transistors are usually modelled as voltage controlled with transconductance proportional to collector current. In general, transistor level circuit design is performed using SPICE or a comparable analogue circuit simulator, so model complexity is usually not of much concern to the designer.

[edit] Turn-on, turn-off, and storage delay

The Bipolar transistor exhibits a few delay characteristics when turning on and off. Most transistors, and especially power transistors, exhibit long base storage time that limits maximum frequency of operation in switching applications. One method for reducing this storage time is by using a Baker clamp.

[edit] Transistor 'alpha' and 'beta'

The proportion of electrons able to cross the base and reach the collector is a measure of the BJT efficiency. The heavy doping of the emitter region and light doping of the base region cause many more electrons to be injected from the emitter into the base than holes to be injected from the base into the emitter. The common-emitter current gain is represented by β_F or h_fe; it is approximately the ratio of the DC collector current to the DC base current in forward-active region. It is typically greater than 100 for small-signal transistors but can be smaller in transistors designed for high-power applications. Another important parameter is the common-base current gain, α_F. The common-base current gain is approximately the gain of current from emitter to collector in the forward-active region. This ratio usually has a value close to unity; between 0.98 and 0.998. Alpha and beta are more precisely related by the following identities (NPN transistor):

[edit] Structure

Simplified cross section of a planar NPN bipolar junction transistor

Die of a KSY34 high-frequency NPN transistor, base and emitter connected via bonded wires

A BJT consists of three differently doped semiconductor regions, the emitter region, the base region and the collector region. These regions are, respectively, p type, n type and p type in a PNP, and n type, p type and n type in a NPN transistor. Each semiconductor region is connected to a terminal, appropriately labeled: emitter (E), base (B) and collector (C).
The base is physically located between the emitter and the collector and is made from lightly doped, high resistivity material. The collector surrounds the emitter region, making it almost impossible for the electrons injected into the base region to escape being collected, thus making the resulting value of α very close to unity, and so, giving the transistor a large β. A cross section view of a BJT indicates that the collector–base junction has a much larger area than the emitter–base junction.
The bipolar junction transistor, unlike other transistors, is usually not a symmetrical device. This means that interchanging the collector and the emitter makes the transistor leave the forward active mode and start to operate in reverse mode. Because the transistor's internal structure is usually optimized for forward-mode operation, interchanging the collector and the emitter makes the values of α and β in reverse operation much smaller than those in forward operation; often the α of the reverse mode is lower than 0.5. The lack of symmetry is primarily due to the doping ratios of the emitter and the collector. The emitter is heavily doped, while the collector is lightly doped, allowing a large reverse bias voltage to be applied before the collector–base junction breaks down. The collector–base junction is reverse biased in normal operation. The reason the emitter is heavily doped is to increase the emitter injection efficiency: the ratio of carriers injected by the emitter to those injected by the base. For high current gain, most of the carriers injected into the emitter–base junction must come from the emitter.
The low-performance "lateral" bipolar transistors sometimes used in CMOS processes are sometimes designed symmetrically, that is, with no difference between forward and backward operation.
Small changes in the voltage applied across the base–emitter terminals causes the current that flows between the emitter and the collector to change significantly. This effect can be used to amplify the input voltage or current. BJTs can be thought of as voltage-controlled current sources, but are more simply characterized as current-controlled current sources, or current amplifiers, due to the low impedance at the base.
Early transistors were made from germanium but most modern BJTs are made from silicon. A significant minority are also now made from gallium arsenide, especially for very high speed applications (see HBT, below).

[edit] NPN

The symbol of an NPN Bipolar Junction Transistor.

NPN is one of the two types of bipolar transistors, in which the letters "N" (negative) and "P" (positive) refer to the majority charge carriers inside the different regions of the transistor. Most bipolar transistors used today are NPN, because electron mobility is higher than hole mobility in semiconductors, allowing greater currents and faster operation.
NPN transistors consist of a layer of P-doped semiconductor (the "base") between two N-doped layers. A small current entering the base in common-emitter mode is amplified in the collector output. In other terms, an NPN transistor is "on" when its base is pulled high relative to the emitter.
The arrow in the NPN transistor symbol is on the emitter leg and points in the direction of the conventional current flow when the device is in forward active mode.
One mnemonic device for identifying the symbol for the NPN transistor is "not pointing in, or 'not pointing, no' "^[5]

[edit] PNP

The other type of BJT is the PNP with the letters "P" and "N" referring to the majority charge carriers inside the different regions of the transistor.

The symbol of a PNP Bipolar Junction Transistor.

PNP transistors consist of a layer of N-doped semiconductor between two layers of P-doped material. A small current leaving the base in common-emitter mode is amplified in the collector output. In other terms, a PNP transistor is "on" when its base is pulled low relative to the emitter.
The arrow in the PNP transistor symbol is on the emitter leg and points in the direction of the conventional current flow when the device is in forward active mode.
One mnemonic device for identifying the symbol for the PNP transistor is "pointing in proudly, or 'pointing in - pah'."^[5]

[edit] Heterojunction bipolar transistor

Bands in graded heterojunction NPN bipolar transistor. Barriers indicated for electrons to move from emitter to base, and for holes to be injected backward from base to emitter; Also, grading of bandgap in base assists electron transport in base region; Light colors indicate depleted regions

The heterojunction bipolar transistor (HBT) is an improvement of the BJT that can handle signals of very high frequencies up to several hundred GHz. It is common in modern ultrafast circuits, mostly RF systems.^[6][7] Heterojunction transistors have different semiconductors for the elements of the transistor. Usually the emitter is composed of a larger bandgap material than the base. The figure shows that this difference in bandgap allows the barrier for holes to inject backward into the base, denoted in figure as Δφ_p, to be made large, while the barrier for electrons to inject into the base Δφ_n is made low. This barrier arrangement helps reduce minority carrier injection from the base when the emitter-base junction is under forward bias, and thus reduces base current and increases emitter injection efficiency.
The improved injection of carriers into the base allows the base to have a higher doping level, resulting in lower resistance to access the base electrode. In the more traditional BJT, also referred to as homojunction BJT, the efficiency of carrier injection from the emitter to the base is primarily determined by the doping ratio between the emitter and base, which means the base must be lightly doped to obtain high injection efficiency, making its resistance relatively high. In addition, higher doping in the base can improve figures of merit like the Early voltage by lessening base narrowing.
The grading of composition in the base, for example, by progressively increasing the amount of germanium in a SiGe transistor, causes a gradient in bandgap in the neutral base, denoted in the figure by Δφ_G, providing a "built-in" field that assists electron transport across the base. That drift component of transport aids the normal diffusive transport, increasing the frequency response of the transistor by shortening the transit time across the base.
Two commonly used HBTs are silicon–germanium and aluminum gallium arsenide, though a wide variety of semiconductors may be used for the HBT structure. HBT structures are usually grown by epitaxy techniques like MOCVD and MBE.

[edit] Regions of operation

Bipolar transistors have five distinct regions of operation, defined by BJT junction biases. In order to visualize the modes of operation draw a NPN transistor with it's collector on top, base in the middle and emitter on the bottom. Now, there are two voltage differences: between Collector and base, and between base and emitter. Note two points: Vcb = - Vbc, and 'reverse biased base-collector junction' means Vbc < 0 or Vcb>0. In simple words, it means the collector has a higher voltage than the base(if probed). The mechanical analog can be a pipe and a valve. The valve is base, and two sides of the pipe are collector and emitter. Now the amount of Water ( current) going through depends on how much the valve is open ( base to emitter) voltage, and how much water you have on top of the pipe ( collector to base voltage).
If you write the biases in term of applied voltages (Vcb, Vbe) instead of junction biasing the modes of operation can be described as:

• Forward Active: Base higher than Emitter, Collector higher than Base ( in this mode the collector current is proportional to base current by β_F).
• Saturation: Base higher than emitter, but collector is not higher than base.
• Cut-Off: Base lower than emitter, but collector is higher than base. It means the transistor is not letting conventional current to go through collector to emitter.
• Reverse-Action: Base lower than emitter, collector lower than base: reverse conventional current goes through transistor.

In terms of junction biasing: ('reverse biased base-collector junction' means Vbc < 0 or Vcb>0)

• Forward-active (or simply, active): The base–emitter junction is forward biased and the base–collector junction is reverse biased. Most bipolar transistors are designed to afford the greatest common-emitter current gain, β_F, in forward-active mode. If this is the case, the collector–emitter current is approximately proportional to the base current, but many times larger, for small base current variations.
• Reverse-active (or inverse-active or inverted): By reversing the biasing conditions of the forward-active region, a bipolar transistor goes into reverse-active mode. In this mode, the emitter and collector regions switch roles. Because most BJTs are designed to maximize current gain in forward-active mode, the β_F in inverted mode is several (2–3 for the ordinary germanium transistor) times smaller. This transistor mode is seldom used, usually being considered only for failsafe conditions and some types of bipolar logic. The reverse bias breakdown voltage to the base may be an order of magnitude lower in this region.
• Saturation: With both junctions forward-biased, a BJT is in saturation mode and facilitates high current conduction from the emitter to the collector. This mode corresponds to a logical "on", or a closed switch.
• Cutoff: In cutoff, biasing conditions opposite of saturation (both junctions reverse biased) are present. There is very little current flow, which corresponds to a logical "off", or an open switch.
• Avalanche breakdown region

Although these regions are well defined for sufficiently large applied voltage, they overlap somewhat for small (less than a few hundred millivolts) biases. For example, in the typical grounded-emitter configuration of an NPN BJT used as a pulldown switch in digital logic, the "off" state never involves a reverse-biased junction because the base voltage never goes below ground; nevertheless the forward bias is close enough to zero that essentially no current flows, so this end of the forward active region can be regarded as the cutoff region.

[edit] Active-mode NPN transistors in circuits

Structure and use of NPN transistor. Arrow according to schematic.

The diagram opposite is a schematic representation of an NPN transistor connected to two voltage sources. To make the transistor conduct appreciable current (on the order of 1 mA) from C to E, V_BE must be above a minimum value sometimes referred to as the cut-in voltage. The cut-in voltage is usually about 600 mV for silicon BJTs at room temperature but can be different depending on the type of transistor and its biasing. This applied voltage causes the lower P-N junction to 'turn-on' allowing a flow of electrons from the emitter into the base. In active mode, the electric field existing between base and collector (caused by V_CE) will cause the majority of these electrons to cross the upper P-N junction into the collector to form the collector current I_C. The remainder of the electrons recombine with holes, the majority carriers in the base, making a current through the base connection to form the base current, I_B. As shown in the diagram, the emitter current, I_E, is the total transistor current, which is the sum of the other terminal currents (i.e., ).
In the diagram, the arrows representing current point in the direction of conventional current – the flow of electrons is in the opposite direction of the arrows because electrons carry negative electric charge. In active mode, the ratio of the collector current to the base current is called the DC current gain. This gain is usually 100 or more, but robust circuit designs do not depend on the exact value (for example see op-amp). The value of this gain for DC signals is referred to as h_FE, and the value of this gain for AC signals is referred to as h_fe. However, when there is no particular frequency range of interest, the symbol β is used^{[citation needed]}.
It should also be noted that the emitter current is related to V_BE exponentially. At room temperature, an increase in V_BE by approximately 60 mV increases the emitter current by a factor of 10. Because the base current is approximately proportional to the collector and emitter currents, they vary in the same way.

[edit] Active-mode PNP transistors in circuits

Structure and use of PNP transistor.

The diagram opposite is a schematic representation of a PNP transistor connected to two voltage sources. To make the transistor conduct appreciable current (on the order of 1 mA) from E to C, V_EB must be above a minimum value sometimes referred to as the cut-in voltage. The cut-in voltage is usually about 600 mV for silicon BJTs at room temperature but can be different depending on the type of transistor and its biasing. This applied voltage causes the upper P-N junction to 'turn-on' allowing a flow of holes from the emitter into the base. In active mode, the electric field existing between the emitter and the collector (caused by V_CE) causes the majority of these holes to cross the lower P-N junction into the collector to form the collector current I_C. The remainder of the holes recombine with electrons, the majority carriers in the base, making a current through the base connection to form the base current, I_B. As shown in the diagram, the emitter current, I_E, is the total transistor current, which is the sum of the other terminal currents (i.e., ).
In the diagram, the arrows representing current point in the direction of conventional current – the flow of holes is in the same direction of the arrows because holes carry positive electric charge. In active mode, the ratio of the collector current to the base current is called the DC current gain. This gain is usually 100 or more, but robust circuit designs do not depend on the exact value. The value of this gain for DC signals is referred to as h_FE, and the value of this gain for AC signals is referred to as h_fe. However, when there is no particular frequency range of interest, the symbol β is used^{[citation needed]}.
It should also be noted that the emitter current is related to V_EB exponentially. At room temperature, an increase in V_EB by approximately 60 mV increases the emitter current by a factor of 10. Because the base current is approximately proportional to the collector and emitter currents, they vary in the same way.

[edit] History

The bipolar point-contact transistor was invented in December 1947 at the Bell Telephone Laboratories by John Bardeen and Walter Brattain under the direction of William Shockley. The junction version known as the bipolar junction transistor, invented by Shockley in 1948, enjoyed three decades as the device of choice in the design of discrete and integrated circuits. Nowadays, the use of the BJT has declined in favour of CMOS technology in the design of digital integrated circuits.

[edit] Germanium transistors

The germanium transistor was more common in the 1950s and 1960s, and while it exhibits a lower "cut off" voltage, typically around 0.2 V, making it more suitable for some applications, it also has a greater tendency to exhibit thermal runaway.

[edit] Early manufacturing techniques

Various methods of manufacturing bipolar junction transistors were developed^[8].

• Point-contact transistor – first type to demonstrate transistor action, limited commercial use due to high cost and noise.
• Grown junction transistor – first type of bipolar junction transistor made^[9]. Invented by William Shockley at Bell Labs. Invented on June 23, 1948^[10]. Patent filed on June 26, 1948.
• Alloy junction transistor – emitter and collector alloy beads fused to base. Developed at General Electric and RCA^[11] in 1951.
  • Micro alloy transistor – high speed type of alloy junction transistor. Developed at Philco^[12].
  • Micro alloy diffused transistor – high speed type of alloy junction transistor. Developed at Philco.
  • Post alloy diffused transistor – high speed type of alloy junction transistor. Developed at Philips.
• Tetrode transistor – high speed variant of grown junction transistor^[13] or alloy junction transistor^[14] with two connections to base.
• Surface barrier transistor – high speed metal barrier junction transistor. Developed at Philco^[15] in 1953^[16].
• Drift-field transistor – high speed bipolar junction transistor. Invented by Herbert Kroemer^[17][18] at the Central Bureau of Telecommunications Technology of the German Postal Service, in 1953.
• Diffusion transistor – modern type bipolar junction transistor. Prototypes^[19] developed at Bell Labs in 1954.
  • Diffused base transistor – first implementation of diffusion transistor.
  • Mesa transistor – Developed at Texas Instruments in 1957.
  • Planar transistor – the bipolar junction transistor that made mass produced monolithic integrated circuits possible. Developed by Dr. Jean Hoerni^[20] at Fairchild in 1959.
• Epitaxial transistor – a bipolar junction transistor made using vapor phase deposition. See epitaxy. Allows very precise control of doping levels and gradients.

[edit] Theory and modeling

In the discussion below, focus is on the NPN bipolar transistor. In the NPN transistor in what is called active mode the base-emitter voltage V_BE and collector-base voltage V_CB are positive, forward biasing the emitter-base junction and reverse-biasing the collector-base junction. In active mode of operation, electrons are injected from the forward biased n-type emitter region into the p-type base where they diffuse to the reverse biased n-type collector and are swept away by the electric field in the reverse biased collector-base junction. For a figure describing forward and reverse bias, see the end of the article semiconductor diodes.

[edit] Large-signal models

[edit] Ebers–Moll model

The DC emitter and collector currents in active mode are well modeled by an approximation to the Ebers–Moll model:

Ebers–Moll Model for NPN Transistor^[21]

Ebers–Moll Model for PNP Transistor

The base internal current is mainly by diffusion (see Fick's law) and

where

• V_T is the thermal voltage kT / q (approximately 26 mV at 300 K ≈ room temperature).
• I_E is the emitter current
• I_C is the collector current
• α_T is the common base forward short circuit current gain (0.98 to 0.998)
• I_ES is the reverse saturation current of the base–emitter diode (on the order of 10⁻¹⁵ to 10⁻¹² amperes)
• V_BE is the base–emitter voltage
• D_n is the diffusion constant for electrons in the p-type base
• W is the base width

The α and forward β parameters are as described previously. A reverse β is sometimes included in the model.
The unapproximated Ebers–Moll equations used to describe the three currents in any operating region are given below. These equations are based on the transport model for a bipolar junction transistor.^[22]

where

• i_C is the collector current
• i_B is the base current
• i_E is the emitter current
• β_F is the forward common emitter current gain (20 to 500)
• β_R is the reverse common emitter current gain (0 to 20)
• I_S is the reverse saturation current (on the order of 10⁻¹⁵ to 10⁻¹² amperes)
• V_T is the thermal voltage (approximately 26 mV at 300 K ≈ room temperature).
• V_BE is the base–emitter voltage
• V_BC is the base–collector voltage

[edit] Base-width modulation

Top: PNP base width for low collector-base reverse bias; Bottom: narrower PNP base width for large collector-base reverse bias. Light colors are depleted regions.

Main article: Early Effect

As the applied collector–base voltage (V_BC) varies, the collector–base depletion region varies in size. An increase in the collector–base voltage, for example, causes a greater reverse bias across the collector–base junction, increasing the collector–base depletion region width, and decreasing the width of the base. This variation in base width often is called the "Early effect" after its discoverer James M. Early.
Narrowing of the base width has two consequences:

• There is a lesser chance for recombination within the "smaller" base region.
• The charge gradient is increased across the base, and consequently, the current of minority carriers injected across the emitter junction increases.

Both factors increase the collector or "output" current of the transistor in response to an increase in the collector–base voltage.
In the forward-active region, the Early effect modifies the collector current (i_C) and the forward common emitter current gain (β_F) as given by:^{[citation needed]}

where:

• V_CB is the collector–base voltage
• V_A is the Early voltage (15 V to 150 V)
• β_F0 is forward common-emitter current gain when V_CB = 0 V
• r_o is the output impedance
• I_C is the collector current

[edit] Current–voltage characteristics

The following assumptions are involved when deriving ideal current-voltage characteristics of the BJT^[23]

• Low level injection
• Uniform doping in each region with abrupt junctions
• One-dimensional current flow
• Negligible recombination-generation in space charge regions
• Negligible electric fields outside of space charge regions.

It is important to characterize the minority diffusion currents induced by injection of carriers.
With regard to pn-junction diode, a key relation is the diffusion equation.

A solution of this equation is below, and two boundary conditions are used to solve and find C₁ and C₂.

The following equations apply to the emitter and collector region, respectively, and the origins 0, 0', and 0'' apply to the base, collector, and emitter.

A boundary condition of the emitter is below:

The values of the constants A₁ and B₁ are zero due to the following conditions of the emitter and collector regions as and .

Because A₁ = B₁ = 0, the values of Δn_E(0'') and Δn_c(0') are A₂ and B₂, respectively.

Expressions of I_En and I_Cn can be evaluated.

Because insignificant recombination occurs, the second derivative of Δp_B(x) is zero. There is therefore a linear relationship between excess hole density and x.

The following are boundary conditions of Δp_B.

Substitute into the above linear relation.

.

With this result, derive value of I_Ep.

Use the expressions of I_Ep, I_En, Δp_B(0), and Δp_B(W) to develop an expression of the emitter current.

Similarly, an expression of the collector current is derived.

An expression of the base current is found with the previous results.

[edit] Punchthrough

When the base–collector voltage reaches a certain (device specific) value, the base–collector depletion region boundary meets the base–emitter depletion region boundary. When in this state the transistor effectively has no base.The device thus loses all gain when in this state.

[edit] Gummel–Poon charge-control model

The Gummel–Poon model^[24] is a detailed charge-controlled model of BJT dynamics, which has been adopted and elaborated by others to explain transistor dynamics in greater detail than the terminal-based models typically do [2]. This model also includes the dependence of transistor β-values upon the dc current levels in the transistor, which are assumed current-independent in the Ebers–Moll model.^[25]

[edit] Small-signal models

[edit] hybrid-pi model

Main article: hybrid-pi model

[edit] h-parameter model

Generalized h-parameter model of an NPN BJT.
replace x with e, b or c for CE, CB and CC topologies respectively.

Another model commonly used to analyze BJT circuits is the "h-parameter" model, closely related to the hybrid-pi model and the y-parameter two-port, but using input current and output voltage as independent variables, rather than input and output voltages. This two-port network is particularly suited to BJTs as it lends itself easily to the analysis of circuit behaviour, and may be used to develop further accurate models. As shown, the term "x" in the model represents a different BJT lead depending on the topology used. For common-emitter mode the various symbols take on the specific values as:

• x = 'e' because it is a common-emitter topology
• Terminal 1 = Base
• Terminal 2 = Collector
• Terminal 3 = Emitter
• i_in = Base current (i_b)
• i_o = Collector current (i_c)
• V_in = Base-to-emitter voltage (V_BE)
• V_o = Collector-to-emitter voltage (V_CE)

and the h-parameters are given by –

• h_ix = h_ie – The input impedance of the transistor (corresponding to the emitter resistance r_e).
• h_rx = h_re – Represents the dependence of the transistor's I_B–V_BE curve on the value of V_CE. It is usually very small and is often neglected (assumed to be zero).
• h_fx = h_fe – The current-gain of the transistor. This parameter is often specified as h_FE or the DC current-gain (β_DC) in datasheets.
• h_ox = h_oe – The output impedance of transistor. This term is usually specified as an admittance and has to be inverted to convert it to an impedance.

As shown, the h-parameters have lower-case subscripts and hence signify AC conditions or analyses. For DC conditions they are specified in upper-case. For the CE topology, an approximate h-parameter model is commonly used which further simplifies the circuit analysis. For this the h_oe and h_re parameters are neglected (that is, they are set to infinity and zero, respectively). It should also be noted that the h-parameter model as shown is suited to low-frequency, small-signal analysis. For high-frequency analyses the inter-electrode capacitances that are important at high frequencies must be added.

[edit] Applications

The BJT remains a device that excels in some applications, such as discrete circuit design, due to the very wide selection of BJT types available, and because of its high transconductance and output resistance compared to MOSFETs. The BJT is also the choice for demanding analog circuits, especially for very-high-frequency applications, such as radio-frequency circuits for wireless systems. Bipolar transistors can be combined with MOSFETs in an integrated circuit by using a BiCMOS process of wafer fabrication to create circuits that take advantage of the application strengths of both types of transistor.

[edit] Temperature sensors

Main article: Silicon bandgap temperature sensor

Because of the known temperature and current dependence of the forward-biased base–emitter junction voltage, the BJT can be used to measure temperature by subtracting two voltages at two different bias currents in a known ratio [3].

[edit] Logarithmic converters

Because base–emitter voltage varies as the log of the base–emitter and collector–emitter currents, a BJT can also be used to compute logarithms and anti-logarithms. A diode can also perform these nonlinear functions, but the transistor provides more circuit flexibility.

[edit] Vulnerabilities

Exposure of the transistor to ionizing radiation causes radiation damage. Radiation causes a buildup of 'defects' in the base region that act as recombination centers. The resulting reduction in minority carrier lifetime causes gradual loss of gain of the transistor.
Power BJTs are subject to a failure mode called secondary breakdown, in which excessive current and normal imperfections in the silicon die cause portions of the silicon inside the device become disproportionately hotter than the others. The doped silicon has a negative temperature coefficient, meaning that it conducts more current at higher temperatures. Thus, the hottest part of the die conducts the most current, causing its conductivity to increase, which then causes it to become progressively hotter again, until the device fails internally. The thermal runaway process associated with secondary breakdown, once triggered, occurs almost instantly and may catastrophically damage the transistor package.

[edit] See also

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